03.JAINISM UNDER THE EARLYPANDYAS

JAINISM UNDER THE EARLYPANDYAS
The history of Jainism in the Pandya country can be traced back to a few centuries before the advent of the Christian era. Historical tradition is such that at the close of the 4th century B.C., king Chandragupta Maurya of Magadha and a large gathering of Jaina monks under the leadership of Sruktakevalin Bhadrabahu migrated to Sravanabelgola in Karnataka and spread the gospel of Jina to the laity. Subsequently, after the demise of Chandragupta and Bhadrabahu, their disciples led by Vishakacharya moved further south into the Tamil country and sowed the seeds of Jainism. It is believed that these mendicants reached the Pandya country first and other areas slightly later. Very likely, their arrival to the Pandya region could have taken place in the beginning of the 3rd century B.C.

Although corroborative evidence in support of Vishakacharya’s migration into the far south is conspicuous by its absence, the spread of Jainism from Karnataka is echoed in an early Brahmi epigraph at Sittannavasal. Accordingly, Kauti Iten monk of Eruminadu (Mysore region) resorted to a monastery (cave) at Sittannavasal in about the 2nd century B.C. Several Jaina caverns with Brahmi inscriptions, datable to 2nd century B.C. are found around the Pandya capital, Madurai as well as at distant places. The best known examples are at Muttupatti, Mangulam, Marukaltalai, Anaimalai, Alagarmalai, Arittapatti, Kongarpuliyankulam and Kilavalavu. These ascetic-abodes are incontrovertible evidence for the flourishing nature of Jainism as early as the 2nd century B.C.

The Sangam Pandyas and Jainism
The Pandyas of the Sangam age were liberal in their religious outlook and therefore, all religions including Jainism flourished during their rule also. This is evident from Maduraikkanchi and Silappadikaram referring to the existence of Jaina monasteries (caves) at the outskirts of Madurai. The Silappadikaram also mentions a shrine of a yakshi worshipped by the cowherdess Madari at Madurai. Moreover, most of the early Jaina caves, already referred to, continued to throb with religious activities under the Pandyas. Curiously the enough, Kadalan Valuti, an officer of early Pandya king Nedunjeliyan dedicated a monastery (cave) to the reputed monk Kaninanda at Mankulam. The king’s co-brother and nephew made suitable for habitation another cave and commissioned stone beds in it for the sake of Kaninanda and his disciples. Although king Nedunjeliyan had not made any specific benefaction, his family members and one of his officials took keen interest in the monastic establishments at Mankulam. The role of other Pandya kings and their close relatives in supporting the Jaina creed does not find place either in literature or in lithic records.

The Kalabhras and Jainism
The Kalabharas who subverted the Chera, Chola and Pandyas of the Sangam age are said to have extended partronage to heretical sects, the Jains in particular. Most of the eighteen minor didactic works were composed by Jaina poets during their rule. The Dravida Sangha was established by Vajranandi ascetic in 470A.D. at Madurai. The Pulankurichi monastery in Sivaganga district is stated to have received some benefaction from one Kurran of the Kalbhara family. Thus, the Kalabhra rule till about the middle of the 6th century A.D was also favourable for the growth of Jainism. It must be remembered at this juncture that the early form of Jainism was simple and thereby iconic and ritualistic worship of Tirthankaras and their attendant deities received little attention. This is borne out by the early bald caves of Jaina recluses till about the 6th century A.D. However, tremendous changes had taken place since the 7th century A.D. with the advent of Bhakti movement.

Bhakti movement and Jainism
The 7th century witnessed the rapid growth of Saivism and Vaishnavism on the one hand and the decline of Jainism on the other. The bhakti-saints condemned the practices of the heretical sects vehemently and at the same time, tried to gain wider social basis for the brahmanical religion through bhakti-ideology. This resulted in religious animosity and sectarian rancour. Religious disputes are said to have taken place at many centres. The Periyapuranam even alludes to persecution of the Jainas. As a result, Jainism faced an unexpected decline in the 7th century A.D.

However, soon it recovered from adversities and came to possess a fresh lease of life by adjusting itself to the circumstances and accommodating some elements from brahmanical religion. In this process of assimilation, Jainism paid much importance to idolatory and admitted ritualistic worship of Tirthankaras and their attendant deities. Sometimes, prominence was given to the worship of yakshis like Ambika and Padmavati. The early ascetic-abodes which lost importance in the wake of bhakti movement, began to bristle with Jaina activities once again and came to possess exquisite bold reliefs of Tirthankaras and yakshis, to which regular ritualistic worship was performed. Jaina caverns at Anamalai, Alagarmalai, Tirupparankunram, Uttamapalayam, Kilakuyilkudi, Aivarmalai, Kalugumalai, Chitaral etc., in the Pandya region are some of the examples bearing testimony to this new development.

Moreover, renowned monks like Ajjanandi, Vajranandi, Uttanandi, Gunasagaradeva, Santisena and a host of others played a dominant role in popularizing their religion and accelerating its growth. Although changes were accepted in the mode of worship, their doctrines remained the same without modification. Jainism, thus, became stronger than before, and hence, it could easily counterbalance the growth of brahmanical religion. This new trend of Jainism coincided with the early Pandya rule in southern Tamilnadu.

Early Pandyas’ Patronage (6'"-9th century)
The early Pandya rulers with the exception of Arikesari Parankusa (Kun Pandya), were invariably followers of brahmanical religion. But their adherence to Brahmanism had not resulted in the negligence of Jainism at all. For instance, Maran Sendan (-624 A.D.) was instrumental in scooping out the earliest rock-cut temple at Malaiyadikurichi to the Jaina faith.

Arikesari Parankusa (624-674 A.D.) was an ardent Jaina, at whose liberal patronage Jaina ascetics played a leading role in promoting their religious faith. According to Periyapuranam, when the Pandya king was seriously affected by a ‘ burning fever’, the Jaina monks failed to cure his disease, while the Saiva saint Gnanasambandar succeeded in alleviating his misery. Moreover, the Jaina recluses could not establish their superiority over Sai vism in polemical and other means of disputes with Sambandar. Consequently, Sambandar is alleged to have instigated the king to persecute the Jaina mendicants and destroy their places of worship. Arikesari Parankusa got himself converted to Sai vism after realizing the greatness of Lord Siva. Although the Periyapuranam gives an exaggerated version of religious disputes at the Pandya’s capital, there is no denying of the fact that Jainism had to face stiff opposition from brahmanical advocates, resulting in a serious setback in the 7th century A.D. This declining trend was not confined to the Pandya territory only, but also included other parts of the Tamil country. However, the period of its adversity did not last long and once again it gained momentum in the 8th century A.D. 28 Among the other Pandya monarchs, Srimara Srivallabha (811-860 A.D) and Parantaka Viranaryana (866-911 A.D), lent adequate support to Jainism and its institutions. Srivallabha’s rule witnessed the renovation of the celebrated Sittananavasal rock- cut temple with an addition of a structural mukhamandapa at the instance lian Gautama, a reputed Jaina acharya of Madurai.<ref.15. SII, vol.14, No.5 The edifice was also exuberantly painted with themes such as lotus tank, Srivallabha and his queen witnessing the celestial nymphs performing intricacies of dance etc.

Parantaka Viranarayana’s rule also saw the growth of Jaina religion. His lithic records found at Aivarmalai, Anaimalai, Arittapatti, Kalugumalai and Eruvadi bespeak of the flourishing condition of the monastic establishment at these centres.

In the latter part of the 10th century A.D. the Pandyas had to frequently bear the attacks of the imperial Cholas. Subsequently, they were subjugated and their territory came under the sway of the Cholas. In their attempts at liberating themselves from the Chola overlords, the Pandyas crossed swords with them very often but could not succeed in overpowering them. This state of political insecurity was not conducive for further growth of Jainism in the Pandya region. As a results, Jainism began to disintegrate and its peace-loving adherents gradually migrated to Tondaimandalam. Infact, expect for a few Jaina centres, others lost their pristine glory with the eclipse of the early Pandya power.

Early Pandya Jaina Centres
1.Madurai area With the resurrection of Jainism in the 8th century A.D., apart from the old ones, several new centres sprang up in the Pandya territory. Many caverns found within a radius of 25 km. from Madurai were frequented by Jaina recluses even before the advent of Christian era. Although these ascetic-abodes shrank into oblivion29in the 7th century, once again began to pulsate with life and vigour between the 8th and 10th centuries A.D. Among them, those at Anaimalai, Arittapatti, Kilavalavu, Kilakuyilkudi, Muttupatti, Chettipodavu and Tirupparankunram are worthy of note.

Anaimalai about 12 km. from Madurai, attained its height of glory mainly in the 9th century A.D. A series of sculptures representing Tirthankaras and attendant deities were carved inside the cave. One of them was commissioned by the reputed Ajjanandi, while others were caused to be sculpted by devotees like Enadi Nadi, Saradan Araiyan, Evviyam Pudi and Cheliya Pandi. These sacred images were taken care of by the village accountant of Porkodu and some revenue officials of Venbaikkudi.</ref.Annual Report on Epigraphy (ARE), 67-74/1905. SII, vol.14, Nos.102,103. Arittapatti also became an important Jaina centre in the 9th century A.D. The renowned preceptor Ajjanandi during his stay at the this place, commissioned an image of Adinatha on behalf of the accountants of Nerkodu. Jaina adherents of Vaniyakkudi village agreed to protect this figure. Adinatha is shown seated in ardhaparyankasana and canopied by trichatra above. Muttuppatti, near Vadapalanji, has a huge cavern containing two sculptures of Tirthankaras, identically shown seated in meditative posture. Obviously, they represent Adinatha and Mahavira, the first and last Tirthankaras. The former was consecreated by ascetic Kanagavira Periyadigal, while the latter by Maganadi, the disciple of Kurandi Ashtopavasi acharya.<ref.ARE., 61,62/1910 Kongaipuliyankulam, 14 km. south-west of Madurai, has a series of six caverns serving as abodes of monks. A near by boulder was chosen to carve an image of a Tirthankara, seated in dhyana pose and this was the sacred work of the revered Ajjanandi.<ref.Ibid, 54/1910 A similar sculpture was also commissioned by Ajjanandi at Alagarmalai. Both these figures bear the elegant style of the 9th century Pandya art.

The monasteries at Kilakuyilkudi and Tirupparankunram also came to possess lovely figures of Tirthankaras and Yakshis in the 9th century A.D. They were caused to be made by either the recluses or lay followers. A shallow cavern known as 30Chettipodavu at Kilakuyilkudi contains a row of five sculptures representing Ambika Yakshi., Adinatha, Neminatha, Mahavira and another form of Ambika, all carved in an alignment. These were caused to be sculpted at the instance of ascetics Abhinanda Bhattara and Gunasenaperiyadigal in the 9th century A.D.24

The Aivarmalai hillock at Aiyampalayam in Palani taluk is studded with a number of Jaina icons on the overhanging boulders of caverns. Among them Parsvanatha was considered to be the principal deity whose main image along with that of his yakshi was renovated during the reign of Parantakaviranarayana (870 A.D.) by Santivirakuravar, the disciple of Gunavirakuravadigal. He had also made a gift of 505 kanam of gold for offering to these images and for feeding an ascetic. Other sculptures of Tirthankaras on the hillock were commissioned by ascetics like Ajjanandi, Indrasena, Perumadai Mallisena of the Virasangha and lay followers like Varadapani, Muvendan and Padamulattan hailing from different villages. It deserves special mention that Mallisena of the Virasangha order, a native of Perumandur (Perumadai) near Tindivanam, stayed at the Aiyamapalayam monstery during his Chaturmasya vrata and caused to be made an image of Jina? Inscribed records in characters of the 9th and 10th centuries below these images reveal the prolific nature of Jainism at this place under the Pandyas.

Uttamapalayam in Periyakulam taluk was yet another important 9th century Jaina centre. A series of sculptures in two rows depicting several versions of Parsvanatha and other Tirthankaras find place on a hillock locally known as karuppanaswamy rock. These figures exhibit the typical 9th century Pandya style. The fragmentary inscription of Srimara Srivallabha (832 A.D) found below the first three images refer to their installation by some persons whose names are lost. A few of the remaining icons were commissioned by great ascetics like Ajjanandi and Arishtanemi. The monastic establishment at Uttamapalayam was presided over by AnantaviryaAdigal who is said to have gifted 11 kasus for maintaining a lamp before the principal image. Being a hillock inhabited by Jaina munis, it came to be called Tirukkunagiri and its principal deity Tirukkunagirideva.

2.Sittannavasal
Sittannavasal, 16 km. west of Pudukkottai town, is one of the celebrated Jaina centres, having a natural cavern and a rock- cut temple. The origin of the rock-cut temple is dated back to the 7th century A.D. However, its mandapa was repaired and renovated and was also provided with an additional structural mukhamandapa by Ilangautama, the great acharya of Madurai, during the reign of Srimara Srivallabha (815-862 A.D). Besides, paintings were also executed on the ceiling of the shrine as well as mandapa and on the massive pillars.

These paintings form a class by themselves, and the main theme depicts the Khatikabhumi “Where the good ones rejoice while washing themselves, as they pass on from one region to another inorder to hear the discourse of the Jina in the Samavasarana structure”. The lotus tank contains ducks and fishes gleefully swimming amidst lilies and lotuses, elephants playfully plucking out lotus flowers, buffaloes immersing their body into the water and three monks gathering flowers for offering worship to the Tirthankaras. The most magnificent paintings are of the Pandya king (Srimara Srivallabha) wearing a lovely crown, accompanied by his queen and the two celestial dancers of exquisite feminine charm, executed on the corbels of the pillars. Althoug much of these frescoes have disappeared with the passage of time, the remnants throw welcome light on the art of painting under the early Pandyas.

3.Virasikhamani
Virasikhamani is a village 14 km. south west of Sankarankoil in Tirunelveli district. The hillock adjacent to the village has three natural caverns with a number of stone beds cut at different levels. The first cave served as the resort of Atuman Jinendra and his disciples in the 9th century A.D. Sculptural depictions of Jaina deities are conspicuous by their absence. However, outlines of a conch and a single foot-print are incised on one side of the cave. These are believed to be the symbolic forms of Neminatha, the 21st Tirthankara. The name of the village, Virasikhamani also lends support to this conjecture as Neminatha is popularly known as Sikhamaninatha in Tamilnadu. The second cave is carved with a beautiful lotus design having a pair of foot-prints at its centre. These foot-prints are that of Sage Sahajananda and were carved at the instance of one Avayampukkan. The third cave accommodates five stone beds cut at its rear end, and they are devoid of pillow lofts as well as lithic records. Although inscriptions of early Pandya kings do not find place at Virasikhamani, no doubt, it flourished during their rule. But subsequently, Saivism was on its ascendancy here and thereby, a rock-cut temple of Siva came to be scooped out. The name of the village Virasikhamani also got changed into Viravinoda- Chaturvedimangalam in the 11,h century A.D, revealing its affiliation to the brahmanical sect.

4.Chokkampatti
An unfinished Jaina rock-cut temple of the 7th century A.D. could be seen on the slopes of Chokkampatti hillock, situated 24 km. north-east of Tenkasi in Tirunelveli district. The edifice consists of a shrine preceded by a rectangular mandapa supported by two massive pillars. Its empty sanctum is guarded by two dvarapalakas carved more or less in an erect position. The niches on either side of the entrance have life-size, but partially finished icons of Dharanendra yaksha and Padmavati yakshi. Dharanendra holds a lotus flower in his right arm raised in anjali while the left rests on the hip. His head, is adorned by a makuta canopied by a three hooded serpent which lends to his identification with Dharanendra. The figure of Padmavati, shown in tribhanga posture, stands gracefully with heavy bosom, raises33her right arm in anjali and keeps the left in lola hasta. Its benign countenance, hefty body, bulbous breasts, thick folds of the abdomenal muscles etc., add charm and splendour to the image. Unfortunately, its lower part remains unfinished.

The presence of Dharanendra and Padmavati in the niches would evidently reveal that the temple was intented for Parsvanatha Tirthankara. Had it been complete, it would have remained an early Pandyan monolithic masterpiece. The work of this temple seems to have been abandoned abruptly in the 7th century A.D. for reason not definitely known to us. However, scholars like K.R.Srinivasan and K.V.Soundarajan feel that its abrupt stoppage of work could be attributed to the sectarian animosity between brahmanical creeds and Jainas in 7th century A.D. Hence, no attempt was taken up to complete the temple even at a later period.

5.Malayadikuruchchi
Not far away form Chokkampatti on the road leading to Sankarankoil from Tenkasi lies the hamlet Malayadikuruchi. Having a rock-cut temple scooped out by a local chieftain Pandimangala Adirajan alias Eran Sattan at the instance Maran Sendan in his 17th year (617 ?) of reign. Originally, it was Jaina foundation, but subsequently got converted into a Saiva shrine. Consequent to its conversion, it was remodelled to accommodate images of brahmanical deities. However, outlines of the chiseled off figures of Tirthankara in the sanctum and a yaksha on elephant’s back in the mandapa could be seen even at present. Moreover, the circular medallions of the pillars retain diminutive carvings of Tirthankaras. Thus, the rock-cut’s earlier affiliation to the Jaina faith is indisputable. It has been rightly pointed out by K.R.Srinivasan that its conversion to the Saiva faith was a sequal to religious antagonism between the Saivites and Jainas during the reign of Arikesari Parankusa. However, it was transformed into a full-fledged Saiva temple with elegant sculptures of Hindu deities in the early349th century only. Whatever be case, in its originality, the Malayadikuruchchi temple could have been proud of being the earliest Jaina rock-cut in the Pandya region.

6.Eruvadi
The twin hillock, locally known as Irattaiporrai at Eruvadi, lying 7 km. north of Valliyur town in Tirunelveli district, has a cavern inhabited by Jaina monks in the 9th century A.D. Two medium size images of Adinatha and Mahavira were carved on the overhanging boulder of the ascetic-abode. These sacred images were caused to be made by Ajjanandi during his itinerary to Eruvadi. Members of the nearby Nattarruppokku village assembly agreed to take care of these icons and to make provisions for the regular conduct of their worship. Moreover, Irumbattuvelan Sattan, an official of Parantakaviranarayana made an endowment of some lands in 909 A.D.inorder to meet the expenses incurred in connection with the worship of these images. The choice of the twin hillock to carve the “twin Tirthankara” images, i.e. first and last Jiñas by Ajjanandi seems to be rather intensional and not by chance. This is indirectly alluded to in the epigraph that the first and last Arhat took to their abode at the Tiru-Iru-talai ar uval am, i.e. twin hillock. Eruvadi ceased to be Jaina centre after the 10th century A.D. as brahmanical religion gained currency then onwards. Temples dedicated to Siva as well as Visnu came to be built here in subsequent centuries. However, the Jaina cave remained unaltered till recently. Now, it is worshipped as a temple of Vaikunthaswamy by the local people.

7.Melapparaipatti
It is an insignificant village about 11 km. from Koilpatti in Tuticorin district. A small boulder at the village contains a series of five miniature Tirthankara figures, below which are carved two bold reliefs of Adinatha and Mahavira in a niche. Both of35them are seated alike in dhyana on a low pedestal and canopied by a trichatra each. These sculptures exhibit stylistic features of the 9th century Pandya art. Attempts were made to sculpt some more figures next to them, but owning to the fragile nature of the rock, further work had been abandoned.

8.Kalugumalai
Kalugumalai,situated 16 km. west of Koilpatti, was the most important Jaina centre during the early Pandya regime. It was known as Tirunechchuram between 9Ul and 11th centuries A.D. The hillock on the northern side of this village was frequented by Jaina ascetics who at one stage inhabited four of its natural caverns. The one on the eastern side is the biggest and served as the abode of the principal monk. The whole length of the rock above this cavern was converted into a veritable gallery of exquisite diminutive sculptures of Tirthankaras in three rows, interspersed by bold reliefs of Adinatha, Neminatha, Mahavira, Parsvanatha, Bahubali, Ambika and Padmavati in specially cut niches. These bold reliefs are master pieces of the 9th century Pandya art, and were commissioned by ascetics and sravakas from different parts of Tamilnadu. The monastery of Kalugumalai was presided over by Gunasagaradeva and looked after by a host of his disciples. Being a great centre of religious learning, it attracted ascetics, nuns and lay followers from a number of villages like Kottaru, Kurandi, Tiruchcharanam, Kalakkudi, Nalkurkudi, Pidankudi, Karaikkudi, Alattur, Erahur Pereyirkudi, Ilavenbai etc. Besides, monks and nuns from far-flung centres like Tirumalai, Tirupparuttikunram, Perumandur andTirunarungondai had gone over to Kalugumalai in connection with reglious propagation, and during their stay, they caused to be made fine images of Jaina deities. Lay followers made adequate arrangements for the conduct of offerings and worship to these sacred images. Land, sheep, money etc., were gifted by devotees for the purpose.36

Arrangements for lighting perpetual lamps infront of the bold reliefs were also made by them. It deserves special mention that DharmavittanofNallur-Tumburkurram, Madevanakkan ofNallur Milalaikurram, both from Thanjavur area, constructed two wells for irrigating agricultural lands and for providing aharadana (food) to Vairagis (ascetics) and Bhattaras (monks) expounding Jaina Siddhanta to the laity. These acts of benevolence were done during the reign of Parantakaviranarayanan. Moreover, two guards, Tirumalaiviran and Parantakaviran were also appointed to protect the Jaina monastery and its landed properties by the king himself. The Pandya king’s support to the Kalugumalai monastic establishments is thus evident from his lithic records. Kalugumalai continued to be a stronghold of Jainism till the end of the 10th or beginning of the 11th century A.D., after which it began to disintegrate consequent to the rise of Saivism as well as Chola occupation of the Pandya region.

9.Tiruchcharanattumalai
Tiruchcharanattumalai, otherwise known as Chitaral, 9 km. north east of Martandam in Kanyakumari district, became a centre of Jaina importance in the 9th century A.D. The very name of the hillock would bear testimony to its association with Charanas (Sramanas) or Jaina monks. There are three shrine-chambers accommodating images of Mahavira, Parsvanatha and a yakhi in the natural cavern of the hillock. Besides, three rows of miniature figures of Tirthankaras with bold reliefs of Ambika yakshi, Neminatha, Parsvanatha and Mahavira at regular intervals are carved on the overhanging boulder of the cavern. Among the bold reliefs, the image of Ambika standing in dhvibhanga pose beside her lion mount and flanked by her sons and lady attendant, is an excellent specimen of early Pandya art. The mastery of the craftsman is elegantly portrayed in her slender form, attenuated hip, descending breasts and smiling countenance.The icon of Parsvanatha canopied by a five hooded cobra, stands in kayotsarga, unmoved by mundane life. Padmavati stands gracefully to his left, while Kamata kneels before him. This group of images together with the others were carved at the instance of monks like Ajjanandi, Uttanandi and Viranandiadigal.

Sculptures inside the cavern seem to have been commissioned during the reign of Ay Vikramaditya Varaguna, a vassal chief of the Pandyas, in the 9th century A.D. In the year 889 A.D., Muttuvala Narayanakuratti, a nun, endowed a perpetual lamp, a lamp-stand and a gold flower of 2 kalanju weight to the yakshi.52 Another nun, Gunantangi Kuratti of Perreyirkudi made a gift of gold ornanments to be worn on the same yakshi in 896 A.D. The special importance given to the worship of yakshis in medieval times is illustrated by a number of lithic records and sculptures.

Tiruchcharanattumalai continued to be a Jaina centre, unlike others, till about the middle of the 13th century A.D. Thereafter, it became a place of Hindu worship. This is borne out by an inscription dated in 1250 A.D., mentioning one Narayanan Tamilappallavarayan of Kilavembanadu donated some money for the expenses of the Bhagavati temple of Tiruchcharanattumalai. Obviously, at that time, the image of yakshi in the cave was provided with a plaster coating and transformed into Bhagavati. Still it happens to be a temple of Bhagavati and Hindu devotees from both Kerala and Tamilnadu offer worship on specific days. Although the yakshi got metamorphosised into Bhagavati, other Jaina images retain their original forms even at present.

10.The Nagaraja temple at Nagercoil
Kottaru alias Nagercoil in Kanyakumari district was a Jaina centre from about the 9th century A.D. to 16th century A.D. The present Nagaraja temple on the northern part of the town was originally a Jaina structure, which after the 16th century came to be worshipped by Hindus as a sacred shrine of Serpent god and goddess.

Although Nagercoil was a place of Jaina importance in medieval times, Jaina relics prior to the 16,h century have not survived at this place. However, some 9th century lithic records38from Kalugumalai in Tuticorin district refer to reputed Jaina recluses of Kottaru like Pushpanandi, Uttanandiadigal, Vimalachandra, Santisena and Santisenapperiyadigal who had consecrated images of Tirthankaras at the Kalugumalai monastery.

The existence of the Jaina temple at Nagarcoil in the 12th century is also attested to by some inscriptions from Puravaraseri and Kanyakumari. Late medieval sculptures of Mahavira, Parsvanatha and Padmavati and some inscriptions of the 15th and 16th centuries found in the present temple, mentioning names of two Jaina Panditas, Kamalvahana and Gunavira are indisputable evidence of its Jaina affiliation and good state of preservation. Very likely, in the year 1588, it passed into the hands of the Hindus who began to worship it as the temple of Nagaraja (TiruAnantalvar) and Nagaramman (Consort of serpent king). Loose Sculpturessolated images of Tirthankaras exhibiting 9th and 10th centuries Pandya style of art have been reported from Kayal, Nagalapuram and Kulattur in Tuticorin district. These places were, no doubt, centres of Jaina habitation in medieval times, but structural vestiges of the temples have not been found there. The sculpture of a Tirthankara from Kulattur is delicately carved on a conical stone and stylistically, it resembles the Kalugumalai specimens. The Nagalapuram figure, now on display in the Chennai Government museum, on the other hand, is a massive icon in the round and is devoid of accessory carvings like triple umbrella, creeper design and even the Chauri bearers. The tenth century specimen from Kayal lacks the charm and vigour of the above examples.

Resume Jainism had a chequered history over three and a half century under the early Pandyas. It had gained wide popularity 39amidst early Tamils even before the Pandyas’ emergence into the political arena around the last quarter of the 6th century A.D. A large number of ascetic-abodes with brahmi inscriptions and a volume of literally compositions by Jaina poets would testify to the elated position enjoyed by Jainism. Early form of Jainism was essentially a puritanic, moral based religion. Hence, idolatory and ritualistic worship had little place in it.

The advent of Pallavas in Tondaimandalam and Pandyas in the far south, their large scale building of brahmanical temples, the bhakti ideology popularized by Nayanmars and Alvars, their antagonistic approach towards heretical sects etc., led to a temporary decline of Jainism in the 7th century A.D. Among the Pandyas, Arikesari Parankusa, who then professed Jainism, was either converted or reconverted to Saivism by Gnanasambandar. In the sequel, the Chokkampatti temple remained unfinished while the one at Malaiyadikuruchchi got converted into a Saiva shrine. Due to sectarian animosity, Jaina adherents seem to have migrated to other places from the Pandya capital. Absence of Jaina lithic records as well as literary works of the 7th century would subscribe to the above view.

However, the period of its adversity did not last long and with in less than a century, it could see its resurrection. It was achieved patiently by accommodating iconic and ritualistic worship analogous to Brahmanism. Yakshi cult found a prominent place in Jaina pantheon and came to be held more or less on par with that of the Tirthankaras. As a result, Jainism became colourful and attractive, and could counterbalance the growth of brahmanical religion. It was in this process of transformation, the earlier bare ascetic-resorts, besides the newly inhabited ones, metamorphosised into cave temples with exquisite portrayals of Tirthankaras and yakshis. Abhiseka, naivetya, aradhana, special pujas etc. formed an integral part of the worship of these images. Provisions were made by lay devotees for the conduct of worship and the upkeep of monastic establishments.

40The role of great acharyas and nuns in propagating Jaina doctrines and popularizing the worship of cult images had a tremendous effect in the growth of Jainism. Ajjanandi, Arishtanemi, Uttanandi, Gunasagaradeva and a host of others are held to be revivalist of Jainism in the Pandya region. During their itineraries to Jaina centres for religious propagation, they had also taken care to consecrate images of Tirthankaras and their attendant deities. The reason which impelled them to consecrate icons and encourage ritualistic worship was, no doubt, to gain more popularity among people and at the same time, to remove brahmanical hatred against Jaina adherents.

Early Pandya rulers like Srimara Srivallabha and Parantaka Viranarayana were very tolerant and paid much importance to Jainism. Their rule witnessed the growth of Jaina institutions at Sittannavasal, Anaimalai, Aiyarmalai, Kalugumalai, Uttamapalayam and Eruvadi. Among all the early Pandya Jaina centres, Kalugumalai emerged as the hub of religious activities in the 9th century A.D. attracting Sramanas and Sravakas from all over Tamilnadu.

Structural temples of the early Pandya period seem to have existed atNagercoil, Kulattur, Kayal and Nagalapuram. With the passage of time, their architectural members have disappeared completely, leaving bare the consecrated images to posterity.

The Chola subjugation of the Pandyas in the 10th century A.D. brought about adverse effects on Jainism also. The land of the Pandyas witnessed frequent wars and blood sheds, as a result, it became uncongenial for further growth of Jainism. Moreover, the Cholas had not been so keen in lending support to Jainism in the newly conquered Pandya region as they had done in their homeland as well as the already annexed Tondaimandalam. Consequently, it resulted in the migration of Jaina population to Tondaimandalam where they could profess their religion peacefully without any hintrance. Jainism, thus began to disintegrate and, in course of time, disappeared from the land of the Pandyas..