Emotions and Bhāva in Jainism and Western Thought

Emotions and Bhāva in Jainism and Western Thought
Abstract Emoitions and Bhāva (भाव) are specific states of the soul, which in Jainism are created by effects of Karma. Western philosophy has also studied emotions, which are regarded as complex psycho-physiological experiences influenced by internal as well as external environment. The two approaches are described and the theories of emometions are compared in the paper. The Jainism approach is seen to be a logical outcome of karma theory. Both philosophies emphasize the importance of emotions in life.

Introduction
No aspect of our mental life is more important to the quality and meaning of our (embodied) existence than emotions. Emotion is supposed to be a mental activity followed by physical expressions and actions. Western thinkers have identified emotions as a complex psycho-physiological experience influenced by biochemical activity of the body and the environment. In Jainism bhāva (भाव) is a mode of the soul determined by rise, suppression, annihilation, and annihilation-cum-subsidence of karma accompanied by the following activity in the body in form of physical expressions and actions. Emotion is an aspect or component of bhāva. (भाव) In western model the stimuli for emotions comes from the body of the environment whereas in Jainism these sources are auxiliary causes for changes in the state of the soul, the main cause is transformation in the state of the soul on account of activity in the karma body. However both approaches maintain that emotions and bhāva (भाव) involve mental activity and physical changes in the body. We study and compare these two approaches in this paper.

Emotions in Western Thought
Emotion is a complex psycho-physiological experience of an individual’s state of mind as interacting with biochemical (internal) and environmental (external) influences. Emotions provide the affective component to motivation. Positive or negative, and motivations direct and energize behaviour. Although the word emotion might seem to be about feeling and not about thinking cognitions-particularly interpretations of the meanings of events-are important aspects of emotions. Thoughts can refer either to the act of thinking or the resulting ideas or arrangement of ideas. The activiries of interpreting, evaluating, imagining, planning, and remembering are also modes of thought.

Some thinkers advocate integrated approach for mind and body for thinking. The Embodied Cognition Approach states that classical approach of separating mind and analyzing its processes is misguided : instead, we should see that the mind, actions of an embodied agent, and the environement it perceives and envisions. are all parts of a whole which determine each other. Therefore functional analysis of the mind alone will always leave us with the mind-body problem which cannot be solved.

Emotions have been classified in different categeries. In 1972, Paul Ekman classified basic emotions as anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise. Robert plutchik developed the `wheel of emotions’ suggesting eight primary bipolar emotions : joy versus sadness : anger versus fear; trust versus disgust; and surprise versus anticipation. Some basic emotions can be combined to form complex emotions. Similar to the way primary colours combine, primary emotions could blend to form the full spectrum of human emotional experience.

Emotion is one type of effect, other types being mood, temperament and sensation. An emotion is a response to a specific stimulus that can be internal, like a belief or a memory. It is also generally agreed that emotions have intentional content, which is to say that they are about something, often the stimulus itself. Moods, on the other hand, are typically not about anything and at least some of the time does not appear to be caused by a specific stimulus. Emotions also have a relatively brief duration-of the order of seconds of minutes where as moods last much longer. The term passion is related to emotion. Passion is a very strong feeling about a person or thing. It is an intense emotion compelling feeling, enthusiasm, of desire for something. Passion and desire go hand in hand, especially as a motivation. Passion and desire are inseparable. They both can either be creative or destructive and this dark side can very well be dangerous to self or others.

Theories of Emotions
The principal theories proposed for emotions are. 1.Somatic Theories Somatic Theories of emotions claim that bodily response, rather than judgments, are essential to emotions. In James-Lange Theory emotions are specifically feelings caused by changes in physiological conditions relating to the autonomous and motor functions. ``We feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid becuse we tremble, and (it is) not that we cry, strike, or tremble, because we are sorry, angry, or fearful, as the case may be.’’ Feeling theories, by assimilating emotions to sensations, fail to take account of the fact that emotions are typically directed at intentional objects. These theories are less favoured now.

2.Cognitive Theories
These theories argue that cognitive activity-in the form of judgment, evaluations, or thoughts-is necessary for an emotion to occur. This cognitive activity may be conscious or unconscious and may or may not take the form of conceptual processing. Emotion is a disturbance that occurs in the following order (6, 1):

(i)Cognitive appraisal : The individual assesses the event cognitively, which cues the emotion.

(ii)Physiological Changes : The cognitive reaction starts biological changes such as increased heart rate or pituitary adrenal response.

(iii)Action : The individual feels the emotion and chooses how to react. A neurobiological approach distinguishes two classes of emotions.

(1)Classical emotions including love, anger and fear, are evoked by appraisal of scenarios fed by environmental stimuli via distance receptors in the eye, nose and ears.

(2)Homeostatic or primordial emotions are feelings such as pain, hunger, thirst and fatigue, evoked by internal body states, communicated to the central nervous system by interceptors, which motivate behaviour aimed at maintaining the body’s internal milieu at its ideal state. Two observations demonstrate some of the motivations for the cognitive position. First, different individuals will respond to the some event with different emotions, or the same individual may at different time respond differently to the same stimulus.

3.Non-Cognitive Theories
Non-Cognitive Theories are those that defend the claim that judgments of appraisals are not part of the emotion process. The non-cognitive position is that the emotion response directly follows the perception of a relevant stimulus. Thus, instead of any sort of evaluation of judgment about the stimulus, the early part of emotion process is thought to be reflex-like. There are two defferent approaches. The first claims that only some emotions are non-cognitive, the second defends that all emotions are non-cognitive.

The Ontology of Emotions
What, in the end, are emotions ? What do they ultimately consist in ? Are they physiological processes or neuro-physiological states, or adaptive disposition, or evaluative judgments, or computational states, or even social facts or dynamical processes ? According to Scherer (2005) emotions in general are viewed as a genus of processes typically involving five different component aspects or components, comprising subjective feelings, cognition. Motor expression, action tendencies or desire, and neurological processes. Ronald de Sousa (1987) argued that emotions are not reducible to beliefs, desires, or combinations of these two, but represent a logically and functionally separate category of capacities. Aaron Ben-Ze’ev advocates that emotions form a distinct mode or psychological syatem. They are prototypes concepts rather than names of natural kinds, and their subtlety derives from the fact that the emotional mode constitutes an exercise of all faculties Together, particulary in response to change, at the level of perception, intellectual processes, and feeling.

Bhāva, Emotions and Passions in Jainism
Bhāva, and emotions have different meanings in Jainism. Truly speaking emotions are just one aspect or component of bhāva (भाव) or attitude of the soul in Jainism. The term bhāva(भाव) is used in much wider context referring to a range of capacities of the soul. Bhāva and emotion is mode of Jīva occurring due to rise of Karma. The soul is non-physical and is embodied due to karma. The karmas are bond (to the soul) due to activities of the soul. These activities are of two types, yoga, the mental, verbal, and physical activities, and kasāya of the soul. Yoga is the result of rise of body making name karma and kasāya  is caused by rise of conduct deluding, cāritra mohanīya, Karma. The rise these two types of karmas is essential for kasāya and nokasāya  to occur. Beside these two types other types of karma also are involved in determining the total state of the soul or bhāva (भाव) at any instant. The life span determining, āyus, karma decides the realm of existence of the soul and its rise is Prerequistie to the occurrence of bhāva (भाव) and emotions. The feeling producing, vedanīya karma produces the feelings. Vitality obstructing, antarāya karma hinders the energy of the soul and affects its states. The intelligence-obscuring, jñānāvarnīya, karma and perception obscuring, karma determine the cognition activity of the soul. Bhāva (भाव) is the overall state of the soul caused by rise of all karma at any instant. The main karma responsible for and is conduct deluding karma. The deluding karma has two sub types.

(a)Right belief obscuring, it prevents the innate ability of belief in truth.

(b)Right conduct obscuring, it destroys equanimity of conduct. The right belief deluding karma, has three sub types.

(i)Wrong belief deluding karma upon fruition of this karma the soul has faith in non-reality (unbelief).

(ii)Mixed belief deluding karma, upon fruition of this karma the soul has mixed modification of right and wrong.

(iii)Wavering right belief deluding karma, upon fruition of this karma right belief quality is not destroyed but the soul has unsteadiness of ideas, impurity of ideas and/or lack of firmness. The right conduct deluding karma is of two sub types.

(i)Kasāya karma,KASAYA is translated as passions. Anger, ego, deceit and greed are the four passions. Each one of them can be in four grades.

•Anantānubandhi -passions which are the cause of endless transmigration.

•Apratyākhyāvarna passions that on rise do not allow the soul to awaken its consciousness of partial abstinence.

•Pratyākhānāvarna - passions that on rise do not allow the soul to awaken its consciousness of total abstinence (Mahāvrata ). •Samjvalan (flaming up)-passions that on rise do not allow the soul to awaken its consciousness of Vitarāga  (Soul free of attachment and aversion properties) and which burns (affects) slightly even the totally abstinent monk. Thus there are in all 16 sub-types of passion karma.

(ii)	Nokasāya karma. Nokasāya is translated as emotions. These are of nine sub types-laughter (including joking, sarcasm,. Ridicule, criticism, humor, satire, etc.) indulgence (or love, happiness), dissatisfaction (or hate, sadness), sorrow, fear, disgust, male disposition, female disposition, and hermaphrodite disposition (the last three mean sex desire). The soul wihch is subjected to them is hindered in the practice of right conduct.

We must understand the difference between passions, kasāya, and emotions, nokasāya. Passions and emotions karmas belong to the same family of the conduct deluding karma and are similar in character except that passions are higher order effects than emotions. Both passions and emotions cause bondage. Emotions excite the karma (field), and therefore the soul, and passions provide the force for bonding. In fact emotions are multiplying factors for passions, they cause the effect of passions to multiply and participate in the bonding process. Also, passion karma and emotion karma can mutually transform into the other on proper action by the soul. In the absence of emotions the passions would not be as powerful as they are. On the basis of above we can classify emotions in seven basic categories-joking (laughter), liking (love, happiness), disliking (hate, sadness), sorrow, fear, disgust, and sexual desire. The passions are four, anger, ego (pride), deceit and greed, each occurring in four grades and giving a (total of 16 sub-types. The passions can occur in two ways, with and without emotions. The intensity of passion mixed with emotions is higher, multiple, than the intensity of passions without emotions. The effects of these karmas are the principal cause for emobodiment of the soul and are the main determinant of the mode of the soul. The whole emphasis in Jain Philosophy is on their elimination. Emotions, passions and bhāva (भाव) are not natural property of the soul they are karma generated. The natural property of the soul is equanimity and inculcation of this property provides the names to elimindte passions and emotions. An individual practicing equanimity does not allow passions and emotions to overpower him and thus prevents inflow of new karma.

The rise of karma takes place in two ways.
(1)Rise of karma on maturity of the duration of bond period, and

(2)Rise of karma before the maturity period on the initiative of the soul.

The rise in the first case is called `uadaya’ or `the rise’. This takes place occasionally. The rise of the second type due to purusārtha, (activity of the soul) is more regular and related to the actions of the body. Speech and mind in exercise of the free will of the soul. In the first case of udaya the soul experiences the fruits of the rise without invitation. The second case is voluntary action of the soul and the experiences are made due to self initiative. All karmas cannot be aroused prematurely. It is only those karmas wich name become capable of being aroused prematurely can be subjected to premature rising. The criterion for such capability is determined by the varieties of premature arising of karmic type, karmic duration, karmic intensity and karmic units. Our knowledge, perception, vitality, thoughts, feelings and emotions represent the attitude or disposition (bhāva भाव) of the soul at any instant. The attitude (bhāva भाव) of the soul is determined by rising karma. There are three ways in which karma exercise their effect (i) fruition or rise of karma, the karma become active after completing their passive period (ii) subsidence of karma, the karma are suppressed temporarily by will power and made ineffective, and (iii) the karma are destroyed completely by powerful actions. Based on this there are five kinds of attitudes or active modes of the soul. 1.Attitude (bhāva भाव) of the soul by fruition of karma

2.Attitude (bhāva भाव) of the soul by subsidence of karma भाव)

3.Attitude (bhāva भाव) of the soul by annihilation of karma भाव)

When the karma forces get subsided, they are, then, as good as non-existent. The purity of the subsidencial and destructive types of soul’s manifestations is the same; but there is only this much of difference that in the former the destructive karmas exist, while in the latter no such karmas are there.

4.Attitude (bhāva, भाव) of the soul by partial subsidence and partial annihilation of karma (ksayopsamika bhāva {k;ksi’kfed भाव) Where the karmas are obstructing the soul’s faculties and still where the faculties are manifesting partially, it is the destructive-subsidencial manifestation. This type of manifestation requires the non-operation of the totally destructive karmas, so as to avoid complete disappearance of the soul’s faculties, and the operation of the pertially destructive karmas so as to effect a distortion and limitation of the soul’s power’s Akalanka observes : In the absence of the operations of the totally destructive karmas and in the presence of their subsidence the destructive-subsidencial type of manifestations appear on account of the operation of the partially destructive karmas.

5.Attitude (bhāva भाव) of the soul by natural disposition (parinamika bhāva ifj.kkfed भाव) There are some faculties of the soul that do not yield to the karmic forces. These faculties are respondible for the generation of natural manifestations. ``The manifestations depending upon the soul alone are natural. They are independent of the operation, destruction, subcidence and the destruction-subsidence of the karmas. Actually speaking, these manifestations are the implications of the modes resulting from different attributes of the soul. The modes themselves are not identified with them. The subdivisions of the natural manifestations suggest that they represent the generality of a number of the soul’s manifestations. According to the Jain philosophy, in the life of a jiva sometimes the karma pudgala (iqn~xy) are active while other times they are dormant. The former stage reflects the `audayika’ personality, whereas the other is known as `ksayopasamika’. In the audayika one, the karma is in the state of rising, in the ksayopasamika  they are in the state of annihilation cum-subsidence. There are seven characteristics of audayika (vkSnf;d) personality. (1)Lack of capacity to know and perceive.

(2)Infatuation due to the impulses of anger, fear and libido.

(3)Experience of powerlessness

(4)Experience of pain or pleasure

(5)Experience high or low status

(6)Experience of auspicious and inauspicious things.

(7)Experience of life and death. There are four characteristics of the ksayopasamika personality.

(1)Capacity to know and see things

(2)Amurchā ( freedom from infatuation), Abhaya ( fearlessness) and Ananda (vkuan bliss)

(3)Experience of powerlessness, and

(4)Freedom from experiencing (pleasure and pain).

The symptoms of audayika and ksayopasamika  personalities are just the opposite of each other. When the Jiva (tho) settles down in the state of caitanya i.e., pure consciousness, its dual personality fades out and it attains a truly `ksāyaika’ ( emancipated) personality due to total annihilation of all the (psychical) karma. The fruition or karma decides the realms of existence, the gender and the attitudes like anger, ego, deceit, gread, wrong belief, wrong knowledge, non restraint, etc. The suppression of karma develops attiudes of true fuith and true conduct. The annihilations of karma develops true faith, true conduct, right perception, right knowledge, vitality, etc. Partial suppression and partial annihilation or karma develops true faith, true conduct, perceptions of vision, non vision and clairvoyance type, empirical, scriptural and clairvoyance knowledge of right or wrong type, telepathy, vitality, partial restraint etc. The general body of karma determines the state of the individual soul and its ability or inability to obtain salvation. The seven basic emotions, 16 passions and three beliefs, can combine to give a range of emotions. These states are determined by rise of karma, nine possible combinations in the rise of deluding karma have been described. 1 Sub-type – flaming up anger (pride, deceitfulness, greed)

2 = flaming up anger (pride, deceitfulness, greed) + male (female, third) sex (4) This is the case when the soul has elminated the first three sub types of passions and is practicing mahāvratas

4 = flaming up anger (pride, deceitfulness, greed) + male (female, third) sex + joking and liking (disliking and sorrow) (12)

5 a = 4 + fear (disgust or samyaktva ) (24) 5 b = flaming up + pratyākhyānāvarana (izR;k[;kukoj.k) anger (pride, deceitfulness, greed) + male (female, third) sex + joking and liking (disliking and sorrow) (12) This is the case when the soul has eliminated the first two sub types of passions and is practising anuvrata (v.kqozr). The third and fourth sub-types of passions of a given type, say anger, rise simultaneously. 6a = 4 + fear + disgust (fear + samayaktva (lE;DRko) or disgust + samyaktva lE;DRko) (12) (24) 6b = 5b + fear (disdust or samaktva )(24) 6c = flaming up + pratyākhyānāvarana  + apratyākhyānāvarna  anger (pride, deceitfulness, greed) + male (female, third) sex + joking and liking (disliking and sorrow) (12)

In this case the soul has eliminated the first sub type of passion but is not practicing vratas or is not observing self discipline. The other three sub types of passions rise simultaneously. 7a = 4 + fear + disgust + samyaktva (lE;Dro) (21) 7b = 5 b + fear + disgust + samyaktva (lE;Dro) or disgust + samayaktva (lE;Dro) (12) (24) 7c = 6c + mixed belief (12) 7d = 6c + Fear (disgust or (lE;DRo) samyaktva 24 [12] 7 e = 6 c + Unbelief [12] 7f + flaming up + pratyākhyānavarana (izR;k[;kukoj.k) + apratyākhyānāvarana (vizR;k[;kukoj.k) + anantanubhandhi (vuUrkuqca/kh) anger (pride, deceitfulness, greed) + male (female, third) sex + joking and liking (disliking and sorrow) (12) It means that when the first of the highest sub type of passion is rising the other lower sub types are also in state of rise. 8a = 5b + fear + disgust + samayaktva (lE;DRo) [12] 8b = 6c + fear (disgust) + mixed belief [24] 8c = 6c + fear + disgust (samyaktva lE;DRo) (12) [12] 8d = 6c + fear (disgust) + unbelief [24] 8e = 7f + unbelief [12] 8f = 7f + fear (disgust) (24) 9a = 6c + fear + disgust + mixed belief [12] 9b = 6c + fear + disgust + samaktva (lE;DRo) [12] 9c = 6c + fear + disgust + unbelief {(12] 9d = 7f + fear + disgust (12) 9e = 7f + fear (disgust) + unbelief {24] 10 = 7f + fear + disgust + unbelief [12] The above combiniations include both belief deluding and conduct deluding karma sub-types. The belief deluding karma is known to participate in the cognitions activity of the soul and so is a part of perception and knowledge process, implying that rise of this karma describes the bhāva and not emotion states, It is, therefore, presumed that the combinations having only sub-types of conduct deluding karma describe the states of passions and emotions. It is further presumed that that the conmination of kasāya and nokasāya also consititute emotions. It means that the emotions are mixed with passions, which appears to be true in practice in many cases. Based on these assumptions the number of emotions calculated in each case is written in parenthesis at the end of each combinations. In this calculation sex has been considered as one emotion. Adding up the emotions we get Number of emotions (mixed type) 	200 Number of Bhāva				300 Adding 7 basic emotions the total number of emotions is 207. We do not have names of these but we see the wide spectrum of emotions that is possible. The way the emotions, passions and bhāva (भाव) operate in the system appears to be different. The rising deluding karma (fields) emits radiations which interact with the tejasa (rstl) body to produce lesyā waves. The lesyā waves are supposed to interact with the endocrine glands that secrete hormones and the hormones control the chemical activity in the body. Hormone secretion has been found to be associated with emotions and passions. This implies that mind (mana eu) has no role in the arousal of emotions and passions. As mind is an essential component in cognitive process the emotions and passions appear to describe the non-cognitive states of the soul. Bhāva (भाव) on the other hand also takes into account Knowledge, perception, vitality and thoughts meaning involvement of mind in the process. Therefore bhāva (भाव) is assumed to describe cognitive state of the soul.

Comparing this scenario with western approach we find that :
1.In Jaininsm, emotions and bhāva are not the properties of soul, they are karma generated experiences. There is no such parallel concept in western thought.

2.Jainism distinguishes between bhāva and emotions. Bhāva is overall cognitive state of the soul produced by rise of different karmas. Emotion is non-cognitive state produced mainly by rise of conduct deluding karma and constitutes just one aspect or subset of bhāva

3.Emotions are systematically classified in Jainism. Jains and western thinkers differ in defining some emotions. Anger is passion in Jainism and emotion in western philosophy. Also, sex desire is emotions in Jainism and passion in western thought. The Jaina approach appears to be more systematic than the western approach. The diversity of views on cognitive and non-cognitive emotions in western thought is because they have grouped emotions and bhāva in one category. For instance it can be seen that Aaron Ben-Ze’ev in his study is referring to bhāva and not emotions. Scherer also appears to refer to bhāva in his proposition.

Bhāvanā
Bhāvanā is another technical term of Jainsim, Ganādhipati Tulsi and Ācārya Mahāprājnā in their text on Dictionary of Technical Terms of Jainism have described the following meanings of bhāvanā

1.Repeated contemplation on the idea of making oneself resemble one’s ideal (goal)-The process of infusing one’s Citta (with such idea) though strong resolve.

2.The practice of detachment etc. Undertaken for the purification of the Citta (fpr~ psyche), cessations of delusion and cultivation of noble virtues and character building.

3.To infuse the Citta to make it favourable to the practice of meditation in order to undertake such practice.

4.The superlative practices (like contemplation) to make the observance of Mahāvratas more meticulous. Bhāvanā here is seen to describe desire and an attempt to purify the soul, to make it free from the effect to bhāva, Bhāvanā  here has been taken in positive sense but negative bhāvānā  is also possible that increase the karma load on the soul. So bhāvanā like emotions has a wide spectrum, Bhāvanā  is goal-oriented and is aimed towards a purpose in life; it has an intentional content. Depending on the intention the bhāvanā is good or bad. Bhāvanās can be learned and inculcated; bhava  is the product of rising karma. For instance, one learns to do social service which then becomes his bhāvanā and a purpose in life. Twelve benevolent Bhāvanā are described in Jainism that helps the practitioner to progress on the path of purification of the soul. These are the consideration of the transitoriness of all things, of the helplessness of man, of the samasāra of the isolation of the soul, of the Heterogeneity of soul and body, of the impurity of the body, of the inflow of karma, of its impeding and destruction, of the world, of the scarcity of enlightenment, and of the truth well proclaimed by religion. Bhāva lasts longer than emotions; the duration can be hours or days. Bhāvanās are relatively steady and can last for months and even years as they are connected to some purpose in life. Emotions are like disturbance on the surface of a lake that arise and subside quickly. Bhāva is like a deeper layer where only strong disturbances, passions, make their effect felt. Bhāvanā are like the deep mass of water which is hardly affected by the surface disturbances and changes there are infused only by interaction with the environment.

Conclusions
Emotion in western thought has been described as complex psycho-physiological experience. The principal theories proposed for emotion are somatic theories, cognitive theories and non-cognitive theories. Passion is considered as intense emotion. Jainism describes bhāva as state of the soul consequent upon rise, suppression, annihilation of karma. Emotions are identified as effects of operations of nokasāya karma and passion of kasāya  karma. Bhāva refers to a wide range of soul experiences and emotion is just one aspect of this state of the soul. Bhāvanā (भावuk) is a mental activity connected with some purpose in life. Among emotion, bhāva and Bhāvanā  emotion has the smallest duration and bhāvanā  has the longest. The Jain scheme of description of these soul (mental) activities seems to be more systematic and clear than the western approach.

Acknowledgement
I acknowledge some suggestions made by Dr, P. M. Agarwal Udaipur